What Is Historical Linguistics

Historical linguistics—traditionally known as  philology—is the branch of linguistics concerned with the development of a language or of languages over time. The primary tool of historical linguistics  is the comparative method, a way of identifying relations among languages in the absence of written records. For this reason, historical linguistics is sometimes called  comparative-historical linguistics. Linguists  Silvia Luraghi and ‎Vit Bubenik point out that the official act of birth of comparative historical linguistics is conventionally indicated in Sir William Jones The Sanscrit Language, delivered as a lecture at the Asiatic Society in 1786, in which the author remarked that the similarities between Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit  hinted to a common origin, adding that such languages might also be related to Persian, Gothic  and the Celtic languages (The Bloomsbury Companion to Historical Linguistics, 2010).    Examples and Observations Linguistic history is basically the darkest of the dark arts, the only means to conjure up the ghosts of vanished centuries. With linguistic history, we reach farthest back into the mystery: humankind.(Cola Minis, quoted by Lyle Campbell in Historical Linguistics: An Introduction, 3rd ed. Edinburgh University Press, 2013)[A] language  is not some gradually and imperceptibly changing object which smoothly floats through time and space, as historical linguistics based on philological material all too easily suggests.(Paul Kiparsky, 1968; quoted by Richard D. Janda and Brian D. Joseph in The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Wiley-Blackwell, 2003) The Nature and Causes of Language Change Historical linguistics studies the nature and causes of language change. The causes of language change find their roots in the physiological and cognitive makeup of human beings. Sound changes usually involve articulatory simplification as in the most common type, assimilation. Analogy and reanalysis are particularly important factors in morphological change. Language contact resulting in borrowing is another important source of language change. All components of the grammar, from phonology to semantics, are subject to change over time. A change can simultaneously affect all instances of a particular sound or form, or it can spread through the language word by word by means of lexical diffusion. Sociological factors can play an important role in determining whether or not a linguistic innovation is ultimately adopted by the linguistic community at large. Since language change is systemic, it is possible, by identifying the changes that a particular language or dialect has undergone, to reconstruct linguistic history and thereby posit the earlier forms from which later forms have evolved.(William OGrady et al., Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction. Bedford, 2001) Dealing With Historical Gaps [O]ne fundamental issue in  historical linguistics concerns how best to deal with the inevitable gaps and discontinuities that exist in our knowledge of attested language varieties over time. . .One (partial) response is that—to put matters bluntly—in order to deal with gaps, we speculate about the unknown (i.e. about intermediate stages) based on the known. While we typically use loftier language to characterize this activity... the point remains the same. In this respect, one of the relatively established aspects of language that can be exploited for historical study is our knowledge of the present, where we normally have access to far more data than could ever possibly become available for any previously attested stage (at least before the age of audio and video recording), no matter how voluminous an earlier corpus may be.(Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda, On Language, Change, and Language Change. The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Wiley-Blackwell, 2003)

The Story Of An Hour Isolation Essay - 878 Words

Claudia Revelo Dr. Robert Meade ENGL 110 26 September 2017 Images of Confinement and Escape in â€Å"The Story of an Hour† Images of confinement and escape in â€Å"The Story of an Hour† by Kate Chopin. Is shown all throughout the story, Mrs. Mallard felt trapped she did not seem happy at all. The feeling of freedom seemed to take over Mrs. Mallard body. Her exhaustion seems to confine her so when Mrs. Mallard heard the news about her husband. All she could think of is being alone and confining herself in a room where she can express how she truly feels. Mrs. Mallard felt tied down and exhausted from being trapped. Instead of her†¦show more content†¦Showing that Mrs. Mallard has been dispirited showing a lot about her character. Immediately after Mrs. Mallard receives the news about her husband she races to her room where she sits in â€Å" a comfortable, armchair†. The chair symbolizes her oppressive life she had and freedom from society’s expectations. Since it was a tradition to be married by a certain age their marriage was probably planned. So she may have been oblig ated to marry Bentley. Sitting in the chair and looking out the window Mrs. Mallard starts to indulge in her thoughts. An open window is also a form of her freedom. Her paying attention to the blue sky, and describing it as a blue sky, big clouds, tree tops and the smell of fresh rain. By describing all the senses imagery was also being used the image representing on how she imagined her new life without her husband. The open window is a symbol for her bright future and her husband that won t be there anymore to change her decisions. Imagery is shown throughout the story by showing how Receiving the news of death is very strong especially to someone s emotions. If told the wrong way it can be very harmful. Especially when finding out that they are still alive and be as powerful as the news that they re still alive. Mrs. Mallard news of her husband’s death seemed like a positive thing for her. Showing she went through a lot and was not really aShow MoreRelatedReza Banakars Essay In Search of Heimate: A Note on Franz Kafkas Concept of Law669 Words   |  3 Pages In the essay In search of Heimate: A Note on Franz Kafkas Concept of Law, the writer Reza Banakar reviews Kafkas intrepretation of the legal system within his writings. Banakar concocts a passionate arguement for the fact that in the story of The Trial, law is not only a concept but an experience that leaves a indiviual feeling trapped. He also gives a well thought out testimony to support the claim that The Trial bridges the concept of the human condition and the legal system together. EvenRead Mo rePrejudice and Discrimination1551 Words   |  7 PagesDiscrimination on Class Inequality Section 1: Executive Summary This essay is about prejudice and discrimination occurring in Singapore context to address Class discrimination. 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Comparing Media on Trangendered People and Social Issues Free Essays

In this, the 21st century, control over the masses seems to becoming more apparent from a hierarchy containing a handful of self-selected highly ranked, influential individuals. Controlling the views and beliefs of whole nations of people, by controlling what information they receive and how this information is delivered. Some of these people are highly respected, trusted and in positions of authority. We will write a custom essay sample on Comparing Media on Trangendered People and Social Issues or any similar topic only for you Order Now Their words have the power to not only give hope to, but also scare and shape the beliefs of their followers who, unquestionably trust in their intentions. A prime example of this powerful influence on society is in the so-called democratic country of Australia, where one man, Rupert Murdoch, owns two thirds of the nation’s biggest newspapers. 75% of the remaining is owned by one other man, John Fairfax (Donavan, 2011). So then, the well-known saying ‘Don’t believe everything you read or hear’ is a good reminder to anyone subjected to receiving the news anywhere in Australia, to keep an open mind, be sceptical and seek out any other facts through further research before making up their minds on a reported situation. Just because something is broadcast through the media, or is said by an important person, it does not automatically make it fact or cover the whole truth. Very rarely are both sides of a story ever expressed unbiasedly, bringing forth all facts and information and then leaving it up to the individual to make a decision. Consequently, this paper will compare different media outlets. One stemming from great power and position, and the other from a small local community organisation, showing the different strategies and contexts in which they report, how and who they influence and what factual information they use to back up their statements on the topic of transgendered people. Before examining these differences, it is important to mention that the term ‘transgender’ can be defined several ways academically, so for the sake of this paper ‘transgender’ will be used as the umbrella term covering people whose biological sex does not completely, in part or at all coincide with their gender identity. Furthermore, it must be mentioned that gender identity is different from homosexuality, which is sexual orientation. Transgendered people, like everybody else can be straight, bi, gay or somewhere in-between (Dra. Torres, 2001). For a group of people that have existed as some predict, since mankind’s genetic make-up started to differ from ’perfect’ (Reitz, 2009), equality in society has never seemed to exist for long, if at all. There are historical accounts throughout Ancient Greece, Rome and across the Mediterranean to the Middle East of transgendered people worshipping their transgendered goddesses and not only being socially accepted but thought to possess powers of protection and good fortune. That was until Christian and Islamic influences spread and not only were their religious beliefs defamed and eradicated, transgendered people were as well (Dra. Torres, 2001). 2000 years on it seems not much has changed in the eyes of the Catholic Church. On the 22rd of December 2008, Pope Benedict XVI gave his annual end of year Christmas speech to a room filled with archbishops and priests. Broadcasted from inside the Vatican, through their personally owned television station, website, and printed in newspapers across the globe. He summarised the year that was, describing in lengthy detail the occurrence of World Youth Week in Australia, sending messages of peace to war-torn countries and comparing gay and transgendered people to a rainforest. At a time of year that is supposed to be about spreading peace and joy and bringing people together, Pope Benedict XVI started off with these blessings saying â€Å"†¦The grace of God has appeared for all. He then mention World Youth Week in all its glory following by saying and the earth is a gift we must all protect and not abuse the earth’s resources for personal gain. He states it is the Church’s responsibility to firmly publicly protect the earth and the self-destructive man from himself. He describes human being disposition of being man and woman and this ‘self-destructive man’ is anyone that does not ‘respect the order of creation’ by treating it as out of date philosophy of metaphysics. His reasoning that transgende red people exists follows. What is often expressed and understood by the term â€Å"gender† ultimately ends up being man’s attempt at self-emancipation from creation and the Creator. Man wants to be his own master, and alone – always and exclusively – to determine everything that concerns him. Yet in this way he lives in opposition to the truth, in opposition to the Creator Spirit. Rain forests deserve indeed to be protected, but no less so does man, as a creature having an innate â€Å"message† which does not contradict our freedom, but is instead its very premise. The great scholastic theologians described marriage, understood as the life-long bond between a man and a woman, as a sacrament of creation, which the Creator himself instituted– without modifying the â€Å"message† of creation†¦ From this perspective, we should†¦ defend love against sex as a consumer good, the future against the exclusive claims of the present, and human nature against its manipulation. †(Pope Benedict XVI, 22nd Dec 2008) Christmas day, three days later his speech hypocritically had the following comments. Wherever the dignity and rights of the human person are trampled upon; †¦ wherever fratricidal hatred and the exploitation of man by man risk being taken for granted; wherever internecine conflicts divide ethnic and social groups and disrupt peaceful coexistence;†¦ wherever the basics needed for survival are lacking; wherever an increasingly uncertain future is regarded with apprehension, even in affluent nations: in each of these places may the Light of Christmas shine forth and encourage all people to do their part in a spirit of authentic solidarity. (Pope Benedict XVI, 25th Dec, 2008) This is a man in charge of the wealthiest city, representing ‘The Creator’, in the largest populated religion globally, consisting of just below550 million people. His statements were not only badly timed, but uneducated, unethical to say the least and unacceptable to come from a man with such powerful status and influence. He has labelled transgendered people as non-believing mavericks, who chose to change their sex to rebel and free themselves. From what exactly, is incomprehensible the way he puts it, just that they want to emancipate themselves. Not by getting a crazy haircut or wearing outrageous clothing. Not by not socially conforming and not following trends and not even by becoming Atheist. But by subjecting themselves to multiple, painful operations, enduring a hormonal rollercoaster, being socially unaccepted, ridiculed, disowned and being a target for violence. As he sees it, depending on where these self-freeing masters-of-their-own-destiny are from they are ‘choosing’ to throw away almost every basic human right, to instead live a life most likely filled with prostitution and drugs! That’s emancipation? Benedict XVI, 2008) This total misconception has no factual basis, and is obvious from the only reference being ancient theologians’ description on marriage, which resulted in not only offending the gender diverse, but homosexual people as well, who, through further research found he used the same ‘emancipation reason’ on two years earlier (Benedict XVI, 2006). He is basically saying that gay people are a threat to creation because if everyone ‘chose’ to be gay creation would cease to exist. Ironically enough the same could be said about the celibate priesthood. This was an unnecessary personal attack, abusing his position and the media tools he has at his disposal to turn what should have been an inspirational and motivating speech to other power religious leaders into an excuse to breed a prejudice point of view that reached and is still reaching millions. On the very opposite, more positive end of the scale there thankfully exists an organisation called ‘the Gender Centre’ residing in Sydney, Australia. They are funded by Human Services and Community Services and provide a range of facilities not only for transgendered people, but to their loved ones and also organisations. Their pledge states â€Å"†¦The Gender Centre is†¦ committed to educating the public and service providers about the needs of people with gender issues. † (Polare, Jul-Sep, 2011) Their services include support and education, social and support groups, drug and alcohol counselling, HIV/AIDS information, condoms and lube distribution, needle exchange, accommodation, referrals to specialists, outreach programs, counselling and support groups for families of transgendered and the production of a quarter-yearly magazine called ‘Polare’. Polare, Jan-Mar, 2011) Polare is a free magazine and every edition is packed full of helpful information, personal entries and latest news stories all relating to gender issues and the local society. It reports the facts and allows people to send in unsolicited contributions and also has forums on their website for gender issue discussion and debate allowing for all opinions to be heard and responded to. Every page turned exposes more helpful companies and services, for example the Jan-March issue’s page 12 has an ad for a hair removal company, an ad encouraging under 25 year old transgendered to write into the magazine sharing their stories. Opposite on page 13, an article on how a male to female transgender named Lana, fought to be accepted into a professional women’s golf tournament in the US, which she won not only the right to play but the tournament itself. The story continues on with other transgendered sports players and the difficulties they have faced including Lana’s legal battle to be accepted in the US, Britain and European professional golfing tours. Her fight forced the review of the National Collegiate Athletic Association polices making it easier for other transgendered people to compete in sports and fit in in society, whilst also raising awareness (Cummings, 2011). In issue 88 July-Sep 2011, pages 8-12 covers in depth information on the Gender Centre and what they do. Unlike the Pope’s speech, they address transgendered people by name and highlight the social issues they face such as homelessness, social isolation, unemployment and family rejection and provides services to help each of these and more (Moore, 2011). Ironic to what he represents, there was no mention of any solution or help from Pope Benectict XVI. Further in issue 88 are stories of new drug treatments for Hepatitis C and legal battles transgendered are fighting to have the right to be classified as they see themselves not on what their genitalia represents. At the very back of every edition, they have a ‘Directory Assistance’ section six pages long containing services and organisations. These contacts are aimed to help not only the transgendered but the homosexual community too. It covers all states over Australia and includes a few international contacts (Gender Centre, 2011). Online, the Gender Centre provides a 41 page fact sheet covering a wide variety of interrelated topics. From information on their training sessions they can provide for employers and organisations, to information on intersex and ambiguous genitalia. It also provides 10 pages of information on all the rights transgendered people have and highlights different circumstances. It also includes useful contact details of legal and other organisations that might be needed especially in an emergency. (Gender Centre, 2008) It is relieving to see such organisations exist, for such a special group of people living in a society so overpowered by greedy, power-hungry individuals. These people go through so much emotional trauma and psychological stress just trying to understand themselves and who they really are. To then go out into such a critical society and be able to hold their heads high with pride deserves recognition at the strength and resilience the human spirit is capable of. In conclusion, it would only be foolish to wait for a day and age where everyone is considered as worthy as the next, because as the time passes, the rich and powerful only seem to be getting richer and in more powerful positions, controlling more and more what the masses are lead to believe. The worst thing about this, especially when it comes to the leader of a religious group, is the loss of the basic human morals and consideration for other people in general, losing sight of what and who they are representing and influencing. Instead of helping out fellow human beings because they care and want to help, unfair and hypocritical judgements are passed. It just goes to show that even the Catholic Church makes huge mistakes, but as long as our community organisation groups exists, hope can still spread among the people. How to cite Comparing Media on Trangendered People and Social Issues, Essays

Classical Ethical Theories and Hacking - Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss about the Analysing of case study from the perspective of four classical ethical theories including utilitarianism, deontology, virtue and contract. Answer: Introduction Hacker-for-hire website released the names of the buyers and their respective addresses online. The website provided the hacking services in Sweden and Australia. It asked for the name and address of the buyer along with the reason for the hack job to be done. The buyers believed that the information that they provided would be kept a secret; however, the details of 60 Australians were revealed to the public (Tung, 2015). The report covers the ethical analysis of the activity using different ethical theories, such as, Utilitarianism, Deontology, Virtue Theory and Contract Theory of Ethics. Utilitarianism Theory As per the principles that are defined under this theory of Ethics, an act is evaluated as ethically correct or incorrect on the basis of the utility of the same. Utility in this case refers to the pleasure that is gained as a consequence of the action and the absence of the evil or suffering caused by the action. In the case study, hacker-for-hire is a website that provides illegal services to the customers. The execution of such hacking services may cause pleasure to the buyer in terms of understanding the details of the accounts or systems that are hacked. However, it will result in suffering for the party that is hacked. The private and sensitive information of the hacked account or system will be exposed in front of the unauthorized entities (Bentham, 2005). The line of business that the web site deals in is not legal in itself. However, releasing the details of its customers to the public can also not be justified. It will lead to the embarrassment for the customers and will also cause a lot of humiliation. It can be seen that the utility of the action is causing more suffering as compared to the pleasure. Therefore, the activity has been termed as ethically incorrect and unjustified as per the Utilitarianism Theory of Ethics (Gamlund, 2012). Deontology Theory The Deontology Theory of Ethics is the ethical theory that says that the activities and actions that are performed must adhere to the set of rules and guidelines that are defined around them. As per the Australian laws, it is not legal to carry out hacking activities that are not carried out by the professional entities under the defined contracts. The hackers and the buyers of such services can face legal obligations as a result. Also, it has been stated that the organizations must protect the private and sensitive details of its customers under the Intellectual Property rights and policies. The regulations suggest that the privacy of the information must be maintained at all times (ONeill, 2010). In this case, hacker-for-hire is a web site that was carrying out illegal activities. The activity of contracting the site for carrying out hacking services was not correct on the ethical grounds as per this theory. However, to reveal the details of the buyers in public is not an ethical countermeasure that should have been adopted. The website was already carrying out an unethical activity and added to the same by not adhering to the Intellectual Property rights (Equip, 2017). There is a clear violation of Australian laws and Intellectual Property rights in this case. It is due to this reason that the act is termed as ethically incorrect on the basis of the principle of the Deontology Theory of Ethics. Virtue Theory As per the Virtue Theory of Ethics, an activity can be termed as ethically correct is it has positive virtues associated with it. The virtues that were associated with the buyers to contact the web site to hack a particular system or an application were completely selfish in nature. The activity was based upon the suspicion, jealously and the motive to cause harm to the party that will be hacked (Hursthouse, 2000). In the activity that was carried out by the web site which included the release of the buyer details in the public, the virtues that were associated were the selfish benefits to gain publicity at the cost of the embarrassment of the others (Bowden, 2005). In both the cases, the virtues that have been associated with the activities are not positive. They are selfish and negative in nature and therefore, the activity that has been described in the case study has been termed as ethically incorrect as per the Virtue Theory of Ethics (Grcic, 2013). Contract Theory Contract theory of Ethics is based upon the principles that state that the actions that are carried out shall be in agreement with the social norms and guidelines and must adhere to the same. In the society that we live in, it is necessary to maintain peace and harmony. The same shall be done without causing damage to the rest of the entities that are present in the society. The actions that are executed must also abide by the same. The activities that the buyers were carrying out by contracting the web site for hacking a particular system or application were not legal. It was also not in accordance with the social norms and guidelines. It would have resulted in the disturbance of social harmony or peace. For instance, one of the buyers had requested the hacking of the phone of her husband as she was suspicious that her husband was cheating on her. The correct method as per the social norms was to directly discuss the matter with the husband rather than involving a third party in between (Browne, 2012). The web site was not doing the correct activities by providing such hacking services to its customers. It then released the names and details of the buyers in public without their consent. This resulted in a lot of embarrassment and humiliation for the buyers. It also led to the disturbance of the social harmony for the parties that were involved. The actions that were carried out by the web site were also not in accordance with the social guidelines (Wempe, 2004). The two sets of activities, that is, the activities of the buyers and the activities of the web site were not in social agreement. It has therefore been evaluated that the actions mentioned in the case study were not ethically correct as per the ethical theory of Contract. Recommendations and Conclusion Hacking is an activity that cannot be justified or accepted unless it is professional and the parties that are involved have provided their consent. There are various hacking activities that are performed for testing of the systems and applications and those activities are legal as well. However, in this case, the hacking services that were being provided by the web site were not legal. These services may have resulted in the legal obligations for the buyer and for the service provider as well. It was necessary to put a stop on the same. The mechanism that the web site adopted to do the same was not ethical as well. The details of the buyers were released in public which led to a lot of embarrassment and humiliation for them. The corrective and ethical form of action would have been to deny the services to the buyers and to inform them in private that consent will be required from all the parties to carry out hacking services and activities. The web site should have also obtained a professional contract to execute the hacking services. References Bentham, J. (2005). Business Ethics: Utilitarianism. Retrieved 7 September 2017, from https://ww2.it.nuigalway.ie/staff/h_melvin/prof_skill/L2_handout.pdf Bowden, P. (2005). Virtue ethics, Aristotle and organisational behaviour. Retrieved 7 September 2017, from https://w3.unisa.edu.au/hawkeinstitute/gig/aapae05/documents/bowden-virtue.pdf Browne, K. (2012). Introduction to the social contract theory. Retrieved 7 September 2017, from https://www2.econ.iastate.edu/classes/econ362/hallam/Readings/SocialContractHelium.pdf Equip. (2017). Ethics Theories: Utilitarianism Vs. Deontological Ethics - Christian Research Institute. Christian Research Institute. Retrieved 7 September 2017, from https://www.equip.org/article/ethics-theories-utilitarianism-vs-deontological-ethics/ Gamlund, E. (2012). Ethics. Retrieved 7 September 2017, from https://www.uio.no/studier/emner/matnat/ifi/MNSES9100/v14/lectures/mnses-ethical-theory-gamlund.pdf Grcic, J. (2013). Virtue Theory, Relativism and Survival. Retrieved 7 September 2017, from https://www.ijssh.org/papers/273-C10018.pdf Hursthouse, R. (2000). Virtue Ethics and Human Nature. Retrieved 7 September 2017, from https://www.humesociety.org/hs/issues/v25n1-2/hursthouse/hursthouse-v25n1-2.pdf ONeill, O. (2010). Kantean Ethics. Retrieved 7 September 2017, from https://gbelic.org/courses/intro/lectures/lecture-7-deontology.pdf Tung, L. (2015). Rent-a-hacker site leaks Australian buyers' names and addresses. The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 7 September 2017, from https://www.smh.com.au/it-pro/security-it/rentahacker-site-leaks-australian-buyers-names-and-addresses-20150529-ghca3f.html Wempe, B. (2004). On the use of the social contract model in business ethics. Retrieved 7 September 2017, from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8608.2004.00374.x/abstract